Feminist Geographies: Applications and Theories

Feminist Geographies: Applications and Theories Modern feminism began in 1960s in the United States with the Women’s Liberation Movement. This political movement subsequently spread to Europe and initially focussed on equality between men and women. Women saw themselves as ‘subordinate’ and nothing more than â€Å"imaginary figures, the objects of another’s desire, made real† (Mackinnon, 1987) and thus tried to raise awareness of the social inequality experienced by women. Social feminist geography (adopting a Marxist ideology) revolved around the question of how best to articulate gender and class analyses, with the theorisation of a ‘sexual division of labour’. Haraway (1991) thus claims â€Å"a feminist is one who fights for women as a class and for the disappearance of that class†. From these roots drawing inspiration from women’s movements of the 1960s, feminist geographies have developed considerably and diversely over the last 30 years and now hold, without doubt, a considerable institutional presence. This essay will overview the development and progression of feminism as a ‘critical discourse’ and argue that although scholars such as Bondi, in McDowell and Sharp (eds) (1997), contend â€Å"†¦feminism has never achieved a high profile in geography†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and that the â€Å"†¦potential of feminism is ignored†¦Ã¢â‚¬  this is NOT necessarily the case. I will argue feminist theory has shaped theory and practise in geography through raising the awareness of gender issues, helping remove blatant sexism from academic journals and institutions and contributing hugely to the ‘cultural turn’ within the discipline. A huge volume of literature has amassed on feminist geographies over recent decades meaning that in the current era there are numerous ‘feminist geographies’ spanning across the discipline. This is clearly apparent in the number of books that have been published on the topic, the formation of the journal Gender Place and Culture in 1994 and the volume of articles that can be found in other contemporary human, cultural and social geography journals. Although feminist perspectives and outlooks vary in theory and content, common concerns cut across them all (Johnston et al., 2000). Developing out of the radical separatist ideas and oppositional politics associated with the ‘global sisterhood’ of the 1960s and 70s, came a more theoretical outlook associated with the ‘cultural turn’. Feminism thus developed as a critical discourse. The discipline of geography itself was criticised for its inherent masculine bias and for â€Å"excluding half the huma n from human geography† (Monk and Hansen, 1982). Haraway (1991) argued that women â€Å"do not appear where they should in geographical literature†. However, as part of the cultural turn, the shift away from grand theories and a concentration on diverse and interconnecting global micro-geographies, gender was understood to interact with race and class and therefore to understand gender, one â€Å"had to constantly go beyond gender† (Connell, in McDowell and Sharp, 1997). The massive literature on contemporary feminism thus reflects criticisms that ‘Western feminism’ has played down sexual, racial and class differences. Western feminism had been strongly criticised for being ethnocentric, as it obscured or subordinated all other â€Å"Others† (Haraway, in McDowell and Sharp (eds) 1997). Black women argued they were not constituted as ‘women’ as white women were, but instead constituted simultaneously racially and sexually as marked female (animal, sexualised and without rights), but not a women (human, potential wife, conduit for the name of a father). This critique expanded into development studies where it was argued although ‘cultural barriers’ can impede policy progress, many of these barriers may in fact have been magnified and reinforced by Western interventionist ‘gender blind’ development policies, through an ignorance of local traditions (Crewe and Harrison, 1999). The further development of ‘feminist geographies’ and the attempt to make women visible through ‘geographies of women’ has also resulted in a large literature on feminist methodologies (Moss, 1993; Nast, 1994, Farrow, Moss and Shaw, 1995, Hodge, 1995), including experimental writing and self-reflexivity (Rose, 1997). Work by Rose (1993) criticised geographical fieldwork as being â€Å"masculinity in action†, using historical examples such as Tansley’s (1939) ‘Man and Nature’. McDowell (1992) also details sexist biases in research methods, culminating in an absence of statistics about women, for example, detailing their unpaid labour (i.e. housework). In many studies there also seems to be a lack of women that were interviewed. For example, William Whyte’s Street Corner Society (1955), in which he seemed unaware that he had only interviewed men! There has thus been an application of feminist ideas to research and fieldwork. F eminist enquiry now works for an egalitarian research process between the researcher and her ‘subjects’. A further similarity between ‘feminist geographies’ is that they trace the inter-connections between all aspects of daily life, across sub-disciplinary boundaries of economic, social, political and cultural geography. From Linda McDowell’s extensive research on the feminist geographies of the labour force involving ‘glass ceilings’ and discrimination (McDowell, 1997), to Hoschchild’s (1997) ‘dual role’ women and the ‘second shift’ (women having to be carers and mothers as well as career women). There has also been a huge volume of literature over recent years regarding the rise of women workers in the service industry (for example, call centres) and women as the ‘new proletariat’. Conversely, as part of this new ‘identity politics’, gender is argued by some to be a competitive advantage for women in the current workforce in terms of their roles as ‘emotional managers’ (Hochschild, 1983). McDowell (2001, 2004) has also recently tracked the development of a ‘crisis of masculinity’ associated with the collapse of Fordism, unemployment and a ‘lost generation of males’. Thus, it is argued by some the best ‘man’ for a job is now a woman. This thorough, multi-disciplinary application of ‘feminist geographies’ at a variety of different scales in various sub-fields of the discipline clearly highlight its impact in shaping modern theory and practise within geography. From its beginnings of liberal feminism and oppositional politics (1960s and 70s), feminist geography has developed through feminist Marxism involving a gender/class interface (late 70s/80s) to feminist geographies of difference (late 80s-present) as part of identity politics and the ‘cultural turn’. Feminist geography now concentrates on gendered identities within a post-structural, post-colonial, cultural theoretical framework, studying gender relations across races, ages, ethnicities, religions, sexualities and nationalities. Most recently of all, the discipline has undergone further internal-critique, calling for more intensive study of relations and equality between women themselves. It is for these reasons I believe ‘fem inist geographies’ have had a huge ideological impact on geographical theory and practise over recent decades and will continue to do so for years to come. References: Crewe, E. and Harrison, E. (1999) Whose development?: an ethnography of aid, London, St Martin’s Press. Farrow, H., Moss, P. and Shaw, B. (1995) Symposium of feminist participatory research, Antipode, 18:2, 186-211. Haraway, D. (1991) Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the reinvention of nature, London, Free Association Books. Hochschild, A.R. (1983) The Managed Heart: Commercialisation of Human Feeling, University of California Press, Berkeley. Hochschild, A.R. (1997) The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work, Henry Holt, New York. Hodge, D. (ed) (1995), Should women count? The role of quantitative methodology in feminist geographic research, The Professional Geographer, 47, 426-66. Johnston, R.J., Gregory, D., Pratt, G., Watts, M. (2000), The Dictionary of Human Geography, Blackwell. Mackinnon, C.A. (1987) Feminism unmodified: discourses on life and law, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. McDowell, L. (1992) Defining women: social institutions and gender divisions, Cambridge, Polity Press. McDowell, L. and Sharp, J. (eds) Space, gender, knowledge: feminist readings (London: Arnold, 1997). McDowell, L.M. (1997) Capital Culture: Gender at Work in the City, Oxford, Blackwell. McDowell, L.M. (2001) Father and Ford Revisited: Gender, Class and Employment Change in the New Millennium, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 26, 448-64. Monk, J. and Hansen, S. (1982) On not excluding the other half from human geography, The Professional Geographer, 32, 11-23. Moss, P. (1993) Feminism as method, The Canadian Geographer, 37, 48-61. Nast, H. (ed) (1994) Women in the field: critical feminist methodologies and theoretical perspectives, The Professional Geographer, 46, 54-102. Rose, G. (1993) Feminism and Geography, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press. Rose, G. (1997) Situating knowledges: positionality, reflexivities and other tactics, Progress in Human Geography, 21, 305-20. Whyte, W.F. (1955) Street Corner Society: the social structure of an Italian slum, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

John Stuart Mill and Women’s Movement Essay

John Stuart Mill was born in London in 1806. He became renowned as an economist, a writer, a philosopher and senior personnel in the East India Company (EIC). John Stuart Mill rendered much of his life time to a prominent activist working for women’s rights and movements. The Beginning The history which links Mill to the feminist movement dates back to the year 1851 when he married to a widow named Harriet Taylor and got settled in Blackheath Park. This place is said to be his spot from where a number of influential writings that advocated women’s right were written, which subsequently became popular worldwide. The Victorian Women’s Movement in England is also said to reach to this very place of Mill in the hope of counseling, headship and financial assistance (Sunshine for Women, 2003). Mill started working for the women’s cause after getting married to Taylor. As a matter of fact, he had to be subtle in participating in reform movements while being a member of the EIC. This is the reason he had to use his pen to work for the purpose. Mill retired from the East India Company in 1858. The first popular writing that he have with his name was written in 1860 and 1861 entitled as The Subjection of Women, which he did not give to publish as yet (Sunshine for Women, 2003). The Breakthrough In the year 1865, Mill was asked to stand at one of the positions for the parliament, the offer which was readily accepted by him. The agreement was basically, on the basis of the platform’s top most agenda as to give women rights to vote along with other equality rights. Following Mill’s enthusiasm for the cause and seeing his participation, different other women’s rights organizations approached him for his support. In due course, a Ladies Discussion Group carried out a poll asking its members if they thought it right for the women to participate in the public affairs. To their surprise, all the women members consented with this. Such an overwhelming response made Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon, a leading early nineteenth century feminist and educationist, take a daring step. She suggested at par to build a suffrage society. Unfortunately, this step could not be carried out at that point in time because other contemporary activists were also afraid of extremists’ actions against the idea. However, Mill was courageous enough to support this idea once it was made certain that a Reform Bill would be put forward to the Parliament. He asked Bodichon to get more than hundred signatures in support of the petition. The stride proved to be quite successful and Bodichon was able to bring around 1,500 signatures following the formation of the first ever Women’s Suffrage Committee. Subsequently, when Mill put forth the petition after almost a eyear in 1866, the Bill was passed and the agenda of having women’s suffrage was incorporated in the parliament. Despite many hurdles, Mill’s one another daring step towards the cause was to make an amendment in the clause that dealt with property qualifications. He proposed to substitute the word ‘man’ with ‘person’ (Sunshine for Women, 2003). Nevertheless, at that point in time, the amendment was defeated with a larger number of votes against it. Unfortunately, this committee did not live very long and was dissolved with the dissolution and reformation of the bill as well. But, the women and Mill’s support did not end here and Mill’s wife along with other women members of the committee succeeded in creating a whole new organization which they named as London National Women’s Suffrage Society (Sunshine for Women, 2003). Mill’s leadership led him to become the honorary president of this very organization. At this moment, this organization needed something in written to disseminate among their members and among the external public. Mill felt a dire need to make his writings public and thus his The Subjection of Women got published and it saw gaining popularity worldwide being translated into a number of languages. Most importantly, this piece of writing was only of its kinds to be present on such a topic until World War 1 (Sunshine for Women, 2003). This step certainly, proved to be a milestone in women’s movement in that era. Subjection Mill’s Subjection remained a limelight for decades whenever women’s movement and feministic approach was talked about. What he wrote in it was women’s persistent low-leveled position which was in a constant struggle to rise. His writings show his sensitivity towards the issue as he talked about the prevalent attitude of the society towards a patriarchal system while subjugating women’s very existence. Subjection also talks about how women’s existence could be kept on exploiting once the society does not follow the norms of equality and justices. The comprehensive book also gets the reputation of advocating how terrible domestic violence is and could prove to be. However, it voices that the right to vote granted to women is only the first step towards a series of obligations that should be followed to treat them as equal beings (Mill, 2003). Conclusion All in all, analyzing John Stuart Mill’s life we can conclude that he got depression and physical ailment at a much younger age, but his intellect was far above those of his contemporary men. He thought and spoke high of women and worked for the feminist movement as much as his health granted him to. References Mill, J. S. (2003). On Liberty and Other Writings. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Sunshine for Women. (2003, February n. d. ). John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). August 2, 2010, from www. pinn. net

The Term Paper Writer Chronicles

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WHITNEY Surname Meaning and Family History

The Whitney surname has several possible meanings: Dweller by or on the white island, from the Old English hwit, meaning white, and ea, meaning water, or ige, meaning island.One who came from a place named Whitney (such as parish of Whitney in Herefordshire, England), a place name meaning white island. First  mentioned in the  Domesday Book  as  Witenie.   Surname Origin: English Alternate Surname Spellings:  WITNEY, WHETNEY, WHITTENEY, WHITENEY, WYTNEY, WHITNY Famous People with the WHITNEY Surname Eli Whitney - American inventor; best known for inventing the cotton ginAmos Whitney - American mechanical engineer and inventorAsa Whitney  -  highly successful dry-goods merchant and  transcontinental railroad  promoterCarl Whitney  -  American Negro League baseball playerJohn Whitney  - founder of the prominent American Whitney  family—notable for their social prominence, wealth, businesses and philanthropy—who left   London, England, to settle in Watertown, Massachusetts in 1635.Mary Watson Whitney - American astronomer Where is the WHITNEY Surname Most Common? The Whitney surname, according to surname distribution information from Forebears, is the 10,104th most common surname in the world. It is most commonly found today in the United States, where it ranks 875th. It is also fairly prevalent in Australia and New Zealand, as well as England—especially in Northamptonshire and Herefordshire. WorldNames PublicProfiler indicates the Whitney surname is found in greatest numbers in the United States, with the greatest numbers living in the states of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Washington, Utah and Idaho. Genealogy Resources for the Surname WHITNEY Whitney Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Whitney family crest or coat of arms for the Whitney surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. Whitney DNA ProjectMany individuals with the Whitney surname have joined this Y-DNA project to work together to use DNA testing along with traditional genealogy research to help determine Whitney origins and distinguish between various Whitney lines. WHITNEY Family Genealogy ForumThis free message board is focused on descendants of Whitney ancestors around the world. Search the forum for posts about your Whitney ancestors, or join the forum and post your own queries.   FamilySearch - WHITNEY GenealogyExplore over 820,000 results from digitized  historical records and lineage-linked family trees related to the Whitney surname on this free website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. WHITNEY Surname Mailing ListFree mailing list for researchers of the Whitney surname and its variations includes subscription details and a searchable archives of past messages. GeneaNet - Whitney RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Whitney surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. The Whitney Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse genealogy records and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the Whitney surname from the website of Genealogy Today. Ancestry.com: Whitney SurnameExplore over 2.7 million digitized records and database entries, including census records, passenger lists, military records, land deeds, probates, wills and other records for the Whitney surname on the subscription-based website, Ancestry.com ----------------------- References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997. Back to  Glossary of Surname Meanings Origins

The Death Penalty Is The Punishment Of Execution - 1707 Words

Kacie Trapp Mr. Sneeden English 1010 6 November 2015 Essay 3: The Personal as Political The death penalty is â€Å"the punishment of execution, administered to someone legally convicted of a capital crime.† Currently, thirty-six countries practice this punishment, 103 countries have abolished it for all crimes, and six countries have abolished it except for special circumstances. The death penalty has been around for a very long time in the United States, with the first recorded execution being that of Captain George Kendall in the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1608. Fortunately, the executions are not as painful and torturous, nor are they still performed to be viewed by the public, like they had been many years ago. There have been some attempts to reform the capital punishment throughout history in America. One instance of a successful attempt at reform was in the landmark case, Furman v. Georgia, in 1972, where the Supreme Court ruled that punishment would be cruel and unusual if it was too severe for the crime, if it was arbitrary, if it offended soci ety s sense of justice, or it if was not more effective than a less severe penalty, setting a new standard for the death penalty and decreasing the amount of people being put to death. However, the death penalty was reinstated in 1976 when states began to rewrite their death penalty statutes to get around the issues addressed in the Furman case and has been practiced since. Clearly, the death penalty is a veryShow MoreRelatedThe Death Penalty Is The Punishment Of Execution1247 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is the death penalty? The death penalty is the punishment of execution, administered to someone legally convicted of a capital crime. In the reading selection â€Å"The DEATH PENALTY in AMERICA† Bedau says that â€Å"The history of the death penalty in America can be useful if roughly divided into six epochs of very uneven duration and importance (3)†.The author is saying that the history of the death penalty can be usefully if it is separate into different time period. The author says â€Å"first, from theRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is The Punishment Of Execution Essay956 Words   |  4 PagesThe death penalty is the punishment of execution. Another term used is capital punishment, which is legally authorized killing of someone as a punishment of a capital crime. The race of executed prisoners and the current prisoners on death row has be en inconsistent over the years since 1976 when the death penalty was reinstated in The United States of America (Facts, 2016). There are thirty-one states that allow capital punishment and the other nineteen states do not allow it. Since 1976 there hasRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is The Punishment Of Execution2472 Words   |  10 PagesThe death penalty is the punishment of execution, administered to someone legally convicted of a capital crime (law.cornell.edu, 2015). The first Congress of the United States authorized the federal death penalty on June 25, 1790 (deathpenalty.org, 2011). The death penalty can also be referred to as capital punishment, however capital punishment also includes a sentence to life in prison, as opposed to strictly executions. A convict can be sentenced to death by various methods including lethalRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is A Punishment Of Execution Essay1708 Words   |  7 PagesThe death penalty is a punishment of execution given to someone who com mits a capital crime. The death penalty cost less than a life in prison sentence and deters criminals from offenses; however, the death penalty can be seen as a form of revenge and innocent people can be wrongly accused. Studies show an equitable amount of evidence to support the theory that the death penalty is founded on systematic racism, bias toward African Americans and preys upon the impoverished in America. This makesRead More Capital Punishment: Does Death Equal Justice? Essay1661 Words   |  7 PagesCapital Punishment: Does Death Equal Justice? Capital punishment causes the death of someone because that person killed someone else, yet only murderers suffer such a fate. Rapists do not endure rape, thieves do not have their possessions robbed, and those convicted of assault do not undergo a similar assault. or hundreds of years people have considered capital punishment a deterrence of crime. Seven hundred and five individuals have died since 1976, by means of capital punishment; twenty-twoRead MoreThe Death Penalty : A Fact Finding Report Essay1514 Words   |  7 PagesThe Death Penalty: A Fact-Finding Report The Death Penalty, also, known as, Capital Punishment, is the sentence of execution, for serious crimes punishable by death, through means prescribed by congress, through laws agreed upon by state legislatures (uslegal.com). Since, the first laws were established in the eighteenth-century, the topic of capital punishment has been met with vast amounts of controversy. Many Americans, have fought correspondingly, to repeal, change, and reinstate, capital punishmentsRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is Also Commonly Referred As Capital1729 Words   |  7 PagesThe death penalty is also commonly referred as capital punishment. The definition of the death penalty is defined as by Merriam-Webster as â€Å"Execution of an offender sentenced to death after a conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense.† Capital punishment has been widely being used for centuries it is known today, as well as the debates that arise with this subject. The history of the Capital punishment goes back as far as Ancient Laws of China. The death penalty was established as punishmentRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is The Punishment For A Wide Range Of Crimes1607 Words   |  7 Pages Throughout history Capital Punishment or â€Å"the Death Penalty† was the punishment for a wide range of crimes. Capital Punishment was used by almost all societies to both punish crime and suppress political dissent. For example, execution was widely employed as a means of oppressing political dissent by fascist or communist governments. Also during the Eighteenth century, Britain executed a person for 222 different crimes including stealing an animal or cutting down a tree. (JasperRead MoreThe Death Penalty Throughout History1074 Words   |  5 Pagesthe development of the death penalty throughout history. It begins with a brief explanation of the origins of capital punishment, referencing the first known documentation of actions punishable by death. The paper goes on to explore different methods of execution and how they have progressed and changed over the years. Documented cases at different points of history are referenced to show the relationship of time periods and beliefs to the implementation of capital punishment. Finally, the developmentRead MoreCapital Punishment Of The United States961 Words   |  4 Pages Capital Punishment in the United States For centuries, capital punishment has been used as a consequence of capital crime. Criminals who have committed such crimes are subject to facing the death penalty. Pickens shares, â€Å"Capital crimes are considered to be treason or terrorist attacks against the government, crimes against property when life is threatened, and crimes against a person that may include murder, assault, and robbery.† Dating back to 1608, the execution of George Kendall

Advertising and the Twentieth Century Free Essays

string(59) " sacrifice most everything for the good of the war effort\." In a sense this was advertising himself. In 3200 B. C. We will write a custom essay sample on Advertising and the Twentieth Century or any similar topic only for you Order Now , papyrus appears in ancient Egypt. This paper like material made it possible for posters and sale messages to be written for the sale of goods. In 1 00 BC, political posters and campaign advertising became popular including negative ads in Roman culture. The first movable type print system was invented in 1 040 A. D. This system invention helped create fonts typography. Four hundred years later the movable printing press is created by the German printer Johannes Gutenberg; thus, making mass production Of the written word and advertising possible. And nil 647, the first newspaper ad tries to sell the book â€Å"The Divine Right of Church Government†. The first billboard was introduced in New York City in an 1 835 advertisement for the circus. Thousands of years of advancements helped pave the road to the explosion of the advertising world that would occur in the next century and change America forever. Beginning of a new era. The 1 ass’s saw industrialism and consumerism come together to form an American culture of consumption. Advertising was a very persuasive technique for promoting this new and vibrant consumer culture. 1 Advertising n the early sass was simply placing announcements in newspapers and magazines. As mediums changed and avenues for reaching the public expanded, advertisements quickly appeared every. N. ‘here. With this much advertising bombarding the public and persuading them to validate their self- worth by the products they purchase; it became embedded in people’s daily lives; as a result, classes and social status were being clearly marked as the â€Å"haves† and â€Å"have nose†. Displays of this newly acquired wealth were seen all over America, especially in urban areas, where most of the rich hung out ND tried to outdo one another with displays of their wealth. Although the rich were targeted in these advertisements, an ever-increasing middle-class America had begun to buy machine made goods due to an increase of disposable income that past generations did not have. As America changed from a country of small towns into a country of busy cities, advertising played a key role in the ideology of Americans. The idea of convenience was a major selling point in one’s life whether it be in the home, leisure, or personal grooming. The sass’s America was rapidly changing into a modernization society. Some examples re: rapid expansion due to railroads, banking infrastructure that made the mass consumer marketplace possible, and more Americans now lived and worked in cities; undoubtedly, forcing them to quickly evolve in this ever changing social and economic environment. With this changing America, advertisers had three major points to contend with. First, advertisers needed to find some kind of meaning in this ever changing and complex bureaucratic world. 3 Modern comforts and lifestyles were drastically different than what previously was a major part of life’s basic needs such as: food, clothing, and tools. People needed to find new meaning to this mechanized routine they lived. Advertisers were there to present the masses with products and consumer goods that would have significant meaning in their lives, no matter how fleeting. Second, advertisers had to give so-called â€Å"solutions† to many of these new problems that modern life proposed. This faster pace of life seemed to be very frustrating consequently, advertisers sought to ease the psychological pressures by helping people believe that the goods they were purchasing for the latest and most progressive product available would help them everyday n the hustle and bustle of modern life. As a result, this changed as needs and products changed. A family was provided simple information, often visually, on how the item would help fix problems of modern day life. Finally, advertisers helped create a new standard of conduct. Industrialization, city living, and an ever-growing move toward bureaucratic hierarchy making social interaction more complex. 4 Whether standard of conduct, fashion, novel technologies, or fads, for most of Americans these were found through national advertising. The degree of how much advertising expanded in the sass can be seen in the numbers. Total advertising volume in the United States increased approximately from 206 million in 1 900 to about 682 million minion and then reached 1,409 million by 1919. 5 By looking at these numbers it is easy to see how rapid expansion of national advertising flourished during this decade. Another key area advertisers targeted was American women. Advertisers saw that magazines such as Cosmopolitan, Ladies Home Journal, and Saturday Evening post were the best way to reach the urban middle-class, and help them to understand and cope with the complexity of modern life through their different products and goods. Rodents such as Budweiser, Coca-Cola, Gillette razors, Ford cars, and Wriggles gum started advertising heavily during this time. Advertising in the Great War In April 191 7, America entered World War l. At this time advertising was not a new thing in America, but the message had to change. Instead of advertisers trying to sell products they had to try to sell a war that America had been neutral on for quite some time. Eight days after the war started Pres. Wilson formed The Committee on Public Information. Pres. Wilson appointed George Creel, a muckraker from Kansas City and Denver, to head he committee. 6 Pres. Wilson believed that this committee was essential to persuade American citizens to support the war. The ICP embroiled approximately 1 50,000 Americans, and it is estimated that the ICP produced 700 poster designs, 122 bus and trolley cards, 31 0 advertising illustrations, and 287 cartoons during its existence. These ads helped the nation come together with a sense of nationalism helping to promote volunteerism and donations. These artists repeatedly tugged at American’s sense of duty, patriotism, and humanitarianism. The Roaring Twenty During World War l, Americas were asked by the government to ration their consumption of fuel and food and to sacrifice most everything for the good of the war effort. You read "Advertising and the Twentieth Century" in category "Papers" When the war ended, advertisers had the chance to shine again. In the past decade, Americans could define themselves in such ways as, race, ethnicity, religion and politics. Americans had begun to define themselves with houses, cars, clothes, and other products and services they bought. In the 192(Yes, most Americans had more money than in the previous decade. Also, most had a belief that more material goods represented more success and modern advertising fueled this concept more than ever. With the use of billboards, newspapers, magazines and radio commercials, advertisers flooded the market with the need to purchase their products, saying it could change peoples lives by enhancing their health, safety, beauty, and daresay their entire being. Advertisers were unscrupulous at the time. Some advertisements would play on the psychological needs and fears in people; such as telling somebody that using a certain soup showed more motherly love than another, or that a toothpaste, detergent or soap bought from the impetigo could harm you or your family. One of the most successful ways advertisers marketed products was the appeal to modernity. Modernity equaled progress and in turn was seen as automatically desirable. Companies, such as the Campbell Soup Co. Convinced women to try condensed soup because the can was easy to open and more importantly the â€Å"modern way ‘ of making soup. Other advertisers would prey on the fears of some as if that looking old-fashioned could actually affect one’s personal life by possibly losing a mate to losing a job to losing one’s self-respect. On the there hand, advertisers use anti-modern ads to people that experienced anxiety due to the fast-paced, mass consumption, forwa rd technology, and corruption of long-standing traditional values. Post Bran Flakes, for example, showed a frustrated businessman scurrying to work. The ad wanted to convey that eating their cereal would promote good health and calming despite living in the modern world. Ad agencies in the 1 ass’s consisted mostly of college graduates with degrees in advertising and business. They had been trained to use market research and learned how to track consumer response o certain products and ads through statistics, surveys, and other analytical methods; thus making advertising almost a science in itself. The Great Depression years The sass’s, Jazz Age, The Roaring ass’s were years of advertising decadence. The decade even adopted a word to describe its approach to selling called â€Å"Ballyhoo†; a term used in the 19th century that meant to exaggerate blatantly, to get attention in anyway possible. 8 By 1929 advertising revenues peaked at 53. 4 billion dollars. Inn Ethel 9205, advertisers hardest thing to do was the show people how to spend their money. For the most part, the public accepted this laissez-fairer; the economy was strong and the government complacent. After the Great Crash of 1 929, everything changed in an instance. Advertisers were in a dilemma. Should they go about business as usual or advertise about the crisis taking place. Even though advertising didn’t talk about the depression directly, advertising did change. Advertising remained for the most part bright and cheery. Ads were more geared towards the value products and services rather than the needs and need not’s of the gluttonous sass’s consumer. While employment was so high and finances, for many, so low, the publics distrust of advertising grew. As a result organizations like Consumer Union and Consumer Research grew and with their success government took notice. They responded with the Pure Food, Drug, and Committee of 1938, The Federal Trade Commission and Securities and Exchange, along with U. S. Post Office and Internal Revenue Service began to increase their supervisory and regulatory controls over advertising. 10 The good fight for the Good War With the advertising industry still on the defense against consumer assessment, America joining the war became a perfect time to repair their image and help the war effort at the same time. Advertisers were very concerned about their future. The industry was mainly concerned that criticism could crippled their credibility and lead to legislation that would tax and regulate its content. At the time, Pres. Roosevelt was very disenchanted with advertising and believed it was obsolete; likewise, he believed that advertising costs should no longer be a tax-deductible business expense. In November 1941, just months before the Pearl Harbor invasion, the Association of National Advertisers and the American Association of Advertising Agencies met to see what could be done. The majority of the industry believed it would be best to â€Å"run ads explaining the economic value of advertising in creating jobs, wealth and low prices. â€Å"1 1 At this meeting was a man with the different vision. James Webb Young thought advertising was needed to promote business, yet he also believed that was just one component of it. Young proposed public-service advertising to help their tarnished image. â€Å"It ought to be used for open propaganda in international elation’s, to create understanding and reduce friction. It ought to be used to wipe out such diseases of ignorance as childbed fever. It ought to do the nutritional job this country needs to have done. It ought to be the servant of music, of art, of literature and of all the forces of righteousness, even more than it is. When will we stop fighting over just the existing business and go back to selling advertising? When will we sell it into these new levels Of usefulness, this larger stature? ,† he asked. 1 1 With this vision the Ad Council was conceived. Lining the War Advertising Counsel officially was created to verse advertising for the war effort. Council wanted ads to encourage the public to organize campaigns for military, enlist in the service, buy war bonds, salvaging fat, and women to the work force. These ads had a significant contribution, especially when it came to women working. With so many men overseas, woman had to work to keep the war machine going. At the end of the war, women were expected to return home, yet that was not the case for most. This would be the beginning of the workingwoman era. The 2nd Half In the sass, after the war was over and the troops were home, the economy started to stabilize. How to cite Advertising and the Twentieth Century, Papers

Perceptual Errors free essay sample

Perception is the process by which people interpret the input from their senses to give meaning and order to the world around them. According to the text, it is the process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret sensory data. The three components of perception are the perceiver, the target (the perceived), and the situation. The perceptual process begins with environmental stimuli and ends with a response or behavior. The perceiver responds to meaningful environmental stimuli and perceives what he or she wants and expects to see. The perceived is said to be influential in the perceptual process because certain general attributes of the perceived object, person or idea influenced what is noticed and what is not. The nature of the environment therefore influences what is perceived as normal or appropriate. Hellriegel and Slocum (2011) discuss perceptual selection and answer the question as to why people select or filter out a particular stimulus amongst multiple conflicting stimuli. This Running head: Bookwork/Fieldwork: Entry 32. process is evidenced by what is referred to as external and internal factors. External factors that affect perceptual selection are intensity, size, motion, contrast, and repetition. Internal factors include motivation, learning, personality, expectations, needs and interests such as sex, money and ethnic identity. Person perception according to the text is the process by which the individual attributes characteristics or traits to other people. Attribution then, is how an individual explains another person’s behavior. This can be determined by whether or not individuals are internals or externals. In internals the image of a person is in the individual’s head. For example, if someone attributes failure to internal forces, the individual will be blamed. On the other hand if that failure is attributed to external forces the environment rather than the individual will be blamed. Perceptual errors are errors in judgment and understanding. The text mentions the five most common perceptual errors: perceptual defense, which in essence is to protect one’s psyche and resist change. Stereotyping is to perceive an individual as a member of a group and thus having group attributes. Halo effect is when an individual gains an impression either positive or negative, on the basis of one thing, characteristic, event, or performance of another individual. Projection is the tendency for individuals to see their own traits in other people. Impression management is an attempt by individuals to manipulate or control the image or impression that others form about them. Attribution is an explanation of the cause of behavior. Attributions are important determinants of behavior in an organization because organization members react to other people’s behavior based on what they think caused the behavior. Common internal attributions Running head: Bookwork/Fieldwork: Entry 33. include ability, effort, and personality. For example, poor performance may be attributed to lack of effort or ability, and poor relations with coworkers may be attributed to personality. Common external attributions for behavior include task difficulty and luck, chance, and easy tasks. Like perceptions, attributions can be inaccurate because of biases, including the fundamental attribution error, the actor-observer effect, and self-serving attribution. According to Attribution theory, three factors determine whether an individual’s behavior is internally or externally caused: Distinctiveness which shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus is the extent to which the individual’s response is the same as others in the same situation. Consistency is the extent to which the individual responds in the same way over time. The Fieldwork Application: There was a time when I considered myself open-minded and a good judge of character. Over time that must have changed or I lost my touch. Having lived an experience which has re-evaluated that concept, I realized that had I not thought it through and reconsidered my perceptions and attributions I would not have accomplished the social and emotional gratification of being a nurse. I have been in the field of nursing for many years, and through those years I have developed my own style of working and require things to be done in a certain way. When I saw things not being done in the way I wanted them to be done, I would get annoyed, uneasy, and I always believed that I was a perfectionist and expected the same of every nurse that worked with me. I always had bias over people who had similar traits like mine, though they might not have been the brightest among the pack (similarity error). But with time and education, I realized that many things have changed and I have adapted to new ways of doing things; even if it meant investing more time and effort to learn new skills. I now have a different perception when I see and work with people around me. I try to acknowledge good and efficient work, as well as being mindful of the time and effort other individuals dedicate to completing patient assignments. When I interviewed new nurses for preceptor ship in my organization, I would give examples of people whose work I had liked and would make recommendations to the new employees to follow in their footsteps (Contrast Error). Over the years, I have realized that each individual has his/her own identity and asking that individual to be a replica of somebody else kills their personality. I have found that the maximum output from people comes out when they are themselves, and do the things they like to do, in the way which they try to do it. I have been guilty of judging people the moment I saw them, but quite often my first impressions have proven to be wrong (First-impression error). I have even made some mistakes in selecting nurses for my unit who looked impressive during interviews, but have failed miserably when they began work. So now, I do not jump to conclusions when I speak with potential employees. I always reserve my judgment until I have spoken to references, and Running head: Bookwork/Fieldwork: Entry 35. thoroughly and objectively evaluated the person’s potential. I have stopped generalizing characteristics based on my own expectations. It took some time, but I realized that everybody comes in with a different frame of mind, attributes and culture. My experience with dealing with these scenarios has made me a much more mature leader and I am always considering ways for self-improvement.